Women's initiation rites in Africa

African female initiation ceremonies are rites of passage for girls entering womanhood, and are usually a public annoucement of the girl's eligibility for marriage.

Nearly every culture in the world ritualizes the important milestones throughout life. Birth, marriage and death are typically marked by special ceremonies. The final passage from childhood to adulthood also figures prominently among various ethnic groups worldwide. Hispanic cultures have quincineras for their daughters. Jews hold Bar Mitzvahs and Bat Mitzvahs for their children. And in America we celebrate with Sweet Sixteen parties.

In Africa, initiation ceremonies are rooted in deep, conservative traditions. For African females, ceremonies marking their entry into the realm of adults are also a public announcement to the community that she is ready to be married. African life revolves around the family and therefore female African initiation ceremonies tend to focus heavily on the preparation of young girls to be good wives and excellent mothers.

Young girls from the Krobo ethnic group, which is dispersed across Ghana, perform the Dipo ceremony. The official ceremony lasts about five days, but pre-ritual preparation requires three weeks. The mother of a young girl selects a ‘ritual mother’ for her daughter. Like a favored aunt, the ritual mother prepares the young girl for her future role as a wife and mother. The young girl learns the art of cooking and household management (a skill she’s been performing beside her own mother since she could walk), music, dance and beautification. The girl is encouraged to leave behind her jaunty, carefree childhood ways and adopt the stature of a woman full of dignity and grace.

The ritual mother will also school the young girl in the art of seduction. The ability to please a man in every way is an art taken seriously by Krobo women. A special string of beads may be worn loosely about her hips as a visual gift to her husband. This focus of seduction, however, does not necessarily lead to a high-rate of promiscuity. Any woman who lets a man other than her husband view her hip beads could be considered unfaithful.

Once the young girl has completed her three-week ‘finishing school’, she is ready for the Dipo ceremony. Although the goal of the ceremony is to celebrate a young girl’s new maturity, it is also a forum for attracting a husband. To afford the best possible selection, the girl will travel with her female mentor to nearby villages to perform the ceremony. She takes with her all the glass beads owned by her family. Glass beads represent wealth among the Krobo and the more beaded necklaces, bracelets and other adornments she wears, the more attractive she will be. Traditionally the girls would perform the ceremony wearing nothing but their glass beads, but today all girls wear a loincloth. The five-day ceremony consists of dancing, eating and merriment. Serious negotiations also take place as local boys and men begin to inquire after a girl’s family. As Carol Beckwith stated in her book titled African Ceremonies, Krobo women are regarded throughout the continent as making the most suitable wives.

A similar dance takes place further south in Swaziland. Every year during the months of August and September, every eligible maiden from the Kingdom of Swaziland attends the Reed Dance, locally known as the Umhlanga. This eight-day ceremony marks the beginning of adulthood for Swazi girls, and also announces to Kingdom that they are ready for marriage. The ceremony, which is restricted to unmarried and childless girls, starts when the girls arrive at the royal home of the mother of the King of Swaziland. To protect the girls on their journey, reputable men from their home villages accompany them to the dance. Once they arrived at the royal compound, the girls are separated into younger and older age groups.

Within their groups they march to the nearby reed beds with long knives, cutting ten to twenty reeds a piece. Using plaited wild grass, they tie up the bundle of reeds and head back to the royal village by nightfall. The next day the reeds are presented to the King’s mother as a sign of respect. For the next several days, the girls perform a series of songs and dances, in hopes of attracting the eye of a suitor. On the seventh day of the ceremony the King arrives to watch the girls dance. If he so desires, he will choose one girl from the crowd to be his wife. The King orders several cattle to be slaughtered from which everyone shares in the feast. On the eight day, the ceremony is complete and the girls return to their villages ready for marriage.

Some women initiation ceremonies are slowly disappearing. In Nigeria, young girls would be cloistered for weeks in an effort to learn the nuances of being a good wife. During this time, the girl would be fattened so as to add several dimensions to her frame. Many ethnic groups in Africa find heavy women attractive. Their corpulence provides a public statement of a man’s wealth in that his wife has plenty of food and servants to do her bidding. Although a heavy frame is still admired among the Nigerian, and several girls will take great pains to increase their weight, the ritual fattening ceremony rarely takes place.

Another ritual that is fading, to the approval of many women’s rights groups, is that of female circumcision. This practice is still quite common among the Masaai and Himba people of southern Africa. As in most African societies, a young girl is considered an adult once she is eligible to marry. For the Masaai and Himba, a young girl will not be suitable for marriage unless she undergoes the circumcision ceremony. Usually the ceremony is attended by the females of the girl’s family. In a private room in their home or out in the countryside, an elderly matron cuts out the girl’s clitoris with a razor blade. The procedure is also called female genital mutilation and has been condemned worldwide for its potential danger to young girls. African tribes still practicing female circumcision insist that the ceremony enforces chastity among females and is central to the initiation rights of girls entering adulthood. Supporters also cite that circumcision ceremonies continue to exist among males with little condemnation from human rights organizations. Himba males, for example, are forced to undergo a painful circumcision. They are absolutely forbidden to cry out in pain for fear of shaming their family, whereas females are encouraged to release their pain vocally.

Female African initiation ceremonies, much like their male counterparts, provide instructions to females on what society will expect of them as adults. Having imitated their mothers from birth, most girls are already fully aware of what will be expected of them as women. The ceremony, however, is the public expression of this expectation by the society – a positive form of peer pressure. In most cultures, the initiation ceremony is something a young girl eagerly looks forward to, prepares for, and honorably takes part in. In essence, the ceremony is the ultimate expression of her flowering womanhood.

Sources: www.thebeadsite.com, Swaziland National Trust Commission at www.sntc.org.sc/cultural

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The Japanese tea ceremony ritual

Rooted in the Zen principles of harmony, respect, purity, and tranquility, the ritual Japanese tea ceremony provides participants a respite from their daily routines.

The Japanese tea ceremony is not a ceremony at all, if that word is taken to mean an unchanging program of actions and rituals. Rather, it is a subtly variable way to commune with nature and with friends. Deeply rooted in Chinese Zen philosophy, it is a way to remove oneself from the mundane affairs of day-to-day living and to achieve, if only for a time, serenity and inner peace.

On the surface, chanoyu – the Japanese term for what is known in the West as the tea ceremony – is a gathering of friends for a simple meal. Every element of chanoyu, no matter how tiny, is chosen to build on and reflect the principles of harmony, respect, purity, and tranquility.

Chanoyu takes place in a small hut apart from the main house. Guests gather in a porch called the machiai and wait until they are summoned. To reach the teahouse, guests walk from the machiai along the roji, or garden path. This path represents a transition, a break from the outside world. The walkway is sprinkled with water as an act of purification before the guests arrive. The teahouse is quite small – about ten feet square – and made of unassuming materials. Although guests enter the house in a predetermined order according to rank, the entryway is small and low – about three feet high. This serves to bring each guest to the same level, a reminder that we are humble beings in a vast universe. The windows of the hut are papered, the floors are covered with tatami mats, and the lighting is dim. Flowers adorn an alcove in which is hung a scroll with words of Zen philosophy. The host does not enter the room until all the guests are seated.

The teahouse changes with the seasons. In warm weather, guests arrive before the heat of the day. Water for tea is prepared on a brazier. Guests arrive in the evening when the weather is colder, and water is heated on a sunken hearth. All the utensils and accessories are chosen with the four Zen principles in mind. Lacquer, bamboo, and ceramics are used together to achieve harmony through contrast. As Kakuzo Okakura wrote in the 1906 classic, The Book of Tea, "Not a color to disturb the tone of the room, not a sound to mar the rhythm of things, not a gesture to obtrude on the harmony, not a word to break the unity of the surroundings, all movements to be performed simply and naturally – such were the aims of the tea ceremony."

The host serves kaiseki, a meal composed of seven light courses. Typically, the serving dishes are ceramic and are presented on black lacquer trays. For an intentional contrast, the fifth course, or Hassun, may be served on a tray made of cedar. Soup, rice, fish, and pickles comprise the usual menu, served with small portions of sake, or rice wine. The final course is a sweet, often made with a bean paste.

After kaiseki is completed, the host prepares the tea. The Matcha, or finely powdered green tea, is kept in a ceramic container in a silk bag. The host scoops a portion of the tea into a ceramic tea bowl and carefully adds simmering water. With a small bamboo whisk the host mixes the tea and the water until the drink is frothy and green. And finally, the tea is served.

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What is Feng Shui?

Feng Shui is the practice of balancing life's energy. Find out more about it!

The practice of Feng Shui has been used by the Chinese for centuries. Translated, the name "Feng Shui" means the wind and the water. These are considered to be two of the most important forms of energy. The basic idea of this age-old practice is to make our environments as beneficial as possible to our health and well being. That is, if our life energy is balanced, then good things and happiness will surely come to us. This is achieved by making the natural energy in a room or an entire building flow naturally and positively. The Chinese believe that this is achieved by the proper placement as well as the designs of rooms and buildings.

You can apply Feng Shui to your home or work space by first considering the current layout of each room. Your bedroom, for example, should be a place of perfect rest and relaxation. The color scheme of the room should be calm, peaceful, and inducive to sleep. The furniture should only reflect the sole purpose of the room. A desk, for example, would be out of place in a bedroom. The ideal place for a desk would be in a den or office. In using Feng Shui, it is believed that when you are in bed, your feet should not point straight out of a door. Also, your back should not face the doorway either. Your bed should be located as far away from the door as possible.

Another important room on your house is your living room. It should be lighted and decorated in a pleasing manner. The furniture should be comfortable and inviting and positioned so that people can sit and talk to each other easily. Again, your living room should be used or designed for one use only. Exercise equipment or office furniture should not occupy this room.

You can walk through and check every room of your house and see if you need to make any changes in the decorations or furniture placement.

Another important aspect to consider in the practice of Feng Shui, is the smell of your home or office. Take a deep breath and let your nose find out. Does the air smell fresh? You may choose to light a scented candle or use another form of an air freshener in order to make the room smell better.

What about the sounds in each room? Walk through and listen carefully. Is there a television set or a radio blaring loudly? Loud noises do not contribute to the harmonic flow that you are trying to create.

There are some other principles of Feng Shui which apply to your life in general. One principle is, that is something becomes broken, you should fix it. Items that are left broken and unfixed may be symbolic of "broken" things or unsolved problems in your life. A second principle is clutter and hoarding unneeded items. This may be a sign that you wish to hold onto old habits, whether they are good or not. Discard unused items that have not been used in a year or so.

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Kendo: techniques of Japanese sword fighting

What is the kendo technique of Japanese sword fighting? Fully armoured knights attack in a flurry, bamboo swords cracking on polished leather. Learn more about this popular sport.

From a nearby gymnasium comes the sound of a loud cry and the crack of bamboo hitting leather. A stranger peeking into the room could be forgiven for thinking they had entered some science fiction movie set with a race of masked and armoured aliens. In fact, what they see is the traditional, protective clothing of kendo.

What is kendo?

Kendo is based on traditional Japanese fighting forms called bujutsu which were designed to practice the most efficient ways of attack and counter attack in sword fighting. While these forms are no longer appropriate as fighting with swords is no longer the standard, kendo has adapted them into a sport similar to fencing where points are given according to where on the body you hit someone with a bamboo stick.

The history of kendo

The 12th to 14th centuries saw sword fighting come to the fore with skills being gradually honed and talented individuals being seen as teachers. Until the beginning of the 15th century, many teaching schools were formed and fatal fights were common between students who were convinced their own teacher’s way of doing things was the best.

At last, teachers began to notice that the most successful sword fighters (ie. those that lived) had something in addition to skill, the ability to remain calm under pressure. It was then that Zen became an integral part of the training through ritual and philosophic thought like it has in many other martial arts.

The look and feel of modern kendo was developed during the seventeenth century where the shinai (bamboo stick) and armour were introduced and this was perfected in the late eighteenth century. The same items continue to be used today.

In 1868, for nearly 30 years, a government ban on swords was in place meaning that kendo fell by the wayside but the end of the ban sparked a renewed interest in the sport. This continued until post-war Japan when another ban was imposed and kendo was not reintroduced until 1957.

Kendo has been undergoing a revival in recent years. While it originated as a form of sword fighting self-defence, it is now taught in both junior and senior high schools to develop self-discipline and also included as part of the police-training program.

The clothing

Kendo armour is deep blue in colour and made from hard leather and bamboo. It includes a shirt, skirt, waist protector, chest protector, headscarf, head/ shoulders/ chest protector and padded gloves as well as the bamboo shinai or stick. In many ways the costume resembles ancient Japanese armour which you can see on dolls and in museums.

The sport of kendo

In kendo, points are allocated for hits with the shinai on certain target areas of the head and body, the Japanese name for which must be called out as you aim for it. There are five areas:

-dead center on top of the head protector

-slightly left or right on top of the head protector

-throat thrust

-the right wrist

-the chest protector, just under the right arm

The fight lasts for a specified period and is won either when someone reaches two points from hits to the appropriate areas or when the time ends and someone is leading 1-0. The match is declared a draw if the time ends with both players on the same score or the match can be continued until one player scores.

Despite the formality of the bouts, kendo is more than just a sport. It sustains traditions and encourages mental as well as physical strength and dexterity. Clubs are springing up around the world, fascinated with the skill and glamour of this ancient art.

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Understanding cultural references in japanese anime and manga

Ever wondered why anime characters have big eyes or wear beads? This article gives you an insight into Japanese culture, as seen in anime and manga!

Most Japanese anime is, obviously, made for a Japanese market, meaning American viewers will be unfamiliar with much of what they see. While some of this unfamiliarity adds to the pleasure of watching, some facets of Japanese culture could stand to be explained.

The Eyes: The large, shiny eyes that have become a staple of anime style are actually more a product of history than of culture. In the past, characters in American and European cartoons, such as Betty Boop and Felix the Cat, had disproportionately large eyes. This style was emulated by Tezuka Osamu, one of the most influential founding fathers of anime. Today, this distinctive eye style has become a matter of the animators' preference. Large eyes often appear on women and young children to make them appear more innocent. Although most American viewers are familiar only with this particular eye style, many of the characters in cartoons shown in Japan possess much more normal eyes.


Various Prefixes and Suffixes: Although an anime may be dubbed in English, many Japanese "add-ons" are left attached to characters' names. These prefixes and suffixes do not have direct English translations, but their meaning is easily understood.

The suffix -sama is a term of the utmost respect, such as one would use when talking about the Emperor or God.

The suffix -san is used for general politeness.

The suffix -chan is a term of endearment, used only between family members, close friends, or romantically involved couples. The suffix -kun is often added to the end of a young man's name. The honorific o- added at the beginning of names and some common nouns has a duel purpose. It is used as both a term of respect and as a means to "soften" statements and requests that would otherwise sound too sharp.


Strange Hair Colors: Outrageous hair colors are common in anime, despite the fact that no culture, anywhere, considers them the norm. The reason for this is surprisingly simple. When a manga series (Japanese comic book) or anime has been selected for U.S. release, the characters' hair color is often changed so that viewers will be able to tell the difference between very similar-looking characters.

Cherry Blossoms: Cherry Blossoms ("sakura" in Japanese) are evident in many anime, including Peacock King and X 1999. In Japan, blossom-viewing parties and picnics are standard fare during the springtime, when the flowers fall as thick as snow. Cherry blossoms are also considered to be a symbol of a life cut tragically short and, for this reason, they are often added during a death scene to give the anime that extra dramatic flair. Sakura is also a very common girls' name.

Money-hungry Women: In Japan, women are responsible for managing the household budget. Men bring home wages and women dole out allowances to their husbands. For this reason, women are often teased for being either overly interested, or completely uninterested, in cash flow. Nanami in El-Hazard, Lina Inverse in Slayers, and Sakura in Key the Metal Idol were all women out to make a buck…many bucks, in fact.

Prayer Beads: Religious characters are often adorned with long necklaces of large beads. These prayer beads are similar in function to the Christian rosary and are used to keep track while reciting the name of the Buddha. Most of these necklaces have 108 beads, symbolizing the 108 evil passions denounced in Buddhism.


Women with Guns: Stereotypically, Japanese women are seen as soft-spoken and shy by the outside world. Therefore, many viewers are amazed at the number of gun-toting women characters in anime and manga. Even though Japan is still highly gender-role oriented, what most people fail to realize is that women have a very large, very important position in Japanese culture. Throughout the country's history, many women have been featured prominently for their courage and compassion. By including strong female characters, anime and manga are helping to destroy the misconception that Japanese women are weak, meek, and mild.

Left-handedness: Although this is relevant only to manga, it is very interesting and has been included (since most anime fans also read, or at least look at, Japanese manga). It may seem that characters in Japanese comic books are all left-handed, which has led many to think that left-handedness is either an extremely common or highly respected trait. It's neither. Just as in America, most people are right handed. And that's the way they are drawn in the comic books. The switch comes when these books are marketed for the United States. Because the Japanese read from right to left, their books open opposite of the way ours do. To put them into a format more comfortable for Americans, the images are switched to their mirror-image so that the book can be read. This means that someone driving on the left side of the road in a Japanese comic book will appear as if he is driving down the right side in the American version. The same is true for any character writing with his or her right hand.

While these cultural references may shed some light on particular anime quirks, some things still can't be explained. For instance, why are women characters so often obsessed with food, and why do so many (seriously, TOO many) men dress in drag?

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All about african fortune telling

Reading fortunes in Africa comes in several forms,depending on the region of Africa and the belief system.

In many cultures divination has played, and continues to play a significant part in religious life. While popular religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, look down upon and even preach against divination, African fortune telling has a particularly rich tradition that still thrives today.

The bulk of African fortune telling revolves around the culture’s desire to not only decipher personal destiny, but beyond this, to discover meaning in life. For most African cultures the two central figures in the divination process are the Nature Spirits and the diviners. Nature Spirits are powers that are not seen, but can be interpreted by the diviners to tell the future. The main Spirit Gods are represented by weather patterns, naturals formations found on the earth, and animals. The ability of a diviner to interpret the signs given by the Nature Spirits is the foundation of African fortune telling.

Human Diviners vary from culture to culture; in some locations only males can be diviners, in others mostly females assume the role. There are also cultures that allow the practice to be shared by both males and females.

A diviner may predict the future in a number of ways. The methods diviners use vary throughout the continent and in different tribes, however, there are some similarity which all cultures share. The use of oracles, for instance, is widespread. Oracles are small pieces of wood sculpted to take the shape of a god, animal, or natural structure. Each oracle is used for a different purpose, according to shape and symbolic significance. The most common oracles are friction oracles used to address ancestral spirits when an individual is facing a personal crisis or uncertainty. The wooden sculpture often takes the form of the Creator God, who is the central divine figure for African cultures. Often times the an icon will resemble a pregnant or obese woman, particularly if the reason an individual seeks council pertains to questions on fertility and the prospect of birth in the near future. Other oracles take the shape of animals. One particular oracle, called the itombwa, is carved in the shape of an alligator and used to answer yes and no questions. A diviner uses this piece when questioning the gods and depending on which side of the wooden sculpture is exposed, the answer is revealed.

A cousin of the oracle is a mini model of the human. These psuedo-oracles are used in the art of "Vodou", which is a popular religious practice in Haiti and elsewhere. While they are used mainly as a means of inflicting or cursing pain on another being, they can be used in the divination process as well. Observing the configuration of a Vodou doll after spells have been cast on it or after it has been tossed on the ground can help indicate future events to the eyes of a seasoned diviner.

In addition to oracles and Vodou dolls, several cultures use the configuration of tossed stones, sticks, or most popularly, gourds as a mode of interpreting the future. Other patterns can be used as an indicator of the future—from the movements of a mouse over a pile of bones to the pattern of fox tracks over a field of grass to the random movements of a spider casting a web. The trend of diviners seeking meaning in seemingly everyday occurrences is widespread in the African culture.

If the diviner is still having trouble seeing the future even with the use of oracles, configurations, or natural patterns, then he or she may consult the deceased. The deceased are sometimes called upon to guide the diviners in their quest to interpret the gods, but are in most cases, eager to assist. Since it is believed the deceased are closer to the gods they can see more clearly the events they wield for humans. The deceased, as relatives of the living, are interested in helping the diviners. The deceased may be invoked by the use of charms, potions, or spells, but often come to an individual willingly, either through dreams of manifesting themselves as pains in the shoulders and back area.

Some diviners, called Baule trance diviners, can only contact the deceased or make predications when they are in a deep state of trance. The trance, it is believed, sends the human form into a temporary state whereby he or she can more clearly see the signals the gods are sending.

Once the diviner—trance or no trance—sees the future, he or she forecasts it to the interested party. If there is a problem in the future that the diviner sees, he or she will likely provide a prescription. Prescriptions can take the form of spells, prayers, charms, mini-statues, herbs, or other oral ingestions. Regardless of the form the prescription takes, it is referred to as medicine for its general healing intention and power.

Not all divinations result in the administration of medicine, however. Many divinations produce joyful and happy results. In these instances the diviner will offer a prayer or words of encouragement for the recipient, and in some cases the entire village will be congregated to share the good news. It is during these celebrations that one can fully appreciate the power of the diviner in the role of everyday life in African culture and how divination can influence a person, a family, and even an entire village of people.

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The Haida tribe

Learn about the Haida tribe, hardy inhabitants of the 150 islands that lie off Canada's British columbia coast.

Haida Gwaii is a dagger shaped archipelago of some one hundred and fifty islands that lie about 60 miles ( 100 kilometers) west of Canada’s British Columbia Coast. This group of islands is known to Europeans as the Queen Charlotte Islands. The islands benefit from warm ocean currents from Japan which give the islands a moderate climate.

The islands are inhabited by the Haida people. They were first discovered by Europeans about two hundred years ago when explorers and traders came across them. They found the natives of these islands to be both peaceful and friendly. In their hand hewed cedar canoes they would row out to the strange ships of the Europeans singing songs of welcome and spreading eagle’s feathers on the waters in a symbolic act of welcome.

The Haida kept no written records of their history prior to the coming of the white man and so very little is known about their arrival on the islands. Some experts believe that they arrived by way of the Bering Strait from Asia. Others assert that they came with the currents from Japan. Interestingly many of the people relate a story handed down from their ancestors of a great flood that covered the highest peaks. Only by building a large raft was anyone able to survive. This, of course, bears an uncanny resemblance to the Genesis account in the Bible.

The Haida had established a highly structured social system in their pre European years. The nation was divided into two parts – the Eagle clan and the Raven clan. The determination as to which clan a person would be in was made in accordance with the line of the mother. The children were always of the mother’s clan. When getting married, partners were only to be of the other clan. The marriage was often arranged when the children were still young.

The history, lineage, wealth and status of a family within the clan was carefully depicted on totem poles. Some of the poles depicted mythical or spiritual creatures. These items, however, were not religiously worshipped. For about a hundred years, from 1840 to 1940, the carving and erecting of the totem poles was very popular. Over the last sixty years, however, the poles have become less popular and can be seen decaying and weather beaten around the islands.

The Haida people spent the period from spring to autumn busy gathering and storing food. They would draw much of their supplies from the seas – fish, clams, herring roe, even sea weed. Seals would be caught and slaughtered for their fat content. This fat would be traded for the grease of the eulachon fish which was not found in the waters surrounding their islands. Eulachon fish is valued by the Haida as a food flavoring. The Haida would also gather wild berries, bird’s eggs and wild meat.

The Haida have become a people that are very adept on the water. They have produced magnificent canoes which can hold up to forty people and two tons of cargo. The people would set off in these 75 foot long vessels on raiding and trading excursions. They would travel as far as Alaska in the north and Puget Sound in the south. They became feared enemies of many of the native mainland nations.

Today the Haida, who once numbered some 7,000 people, have been reduced to just two villages. These villages are Old Masset and Skidegate. The lure of modern city living has been a magnet to many of the younger generation that has driven them away from their misty island home to the large cities of Prince Rupert and Vancouver. Combined with this are the white man’s ravages of alcohol and disease. In addition to this, Church missionaries have spent the last two centuries undermining the culture of the Haida people. Rather than trying to explain the Haida they set about banning his native ways of doing things. Totem poles, medicine men and large communal feasts were all banned by the Christian missionaries. As with so many other native peoples the coming of the white man has not led to advancement and prosperity for the Haida people. On the contrary it has meant the virtual disappearance of their well established culture and a major threat to their continued existence on this planet.

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History of Ottoman empire in Turkey

The history of the Ottoman Empire: it is said to have been founded in 1453 when Mehmed II captured Constantinople from the Byzantine christians, renaming the city Istanbul.

The reign of the Ottoman empire, despite the success of its expansionist strategy and the influence which this culture had upon a vast portion of the world, has been largely ignored by Western historians.

This is surprising considering that the Ottomans or 'Osmali' ruled a vast section of the middle-eastern Europe for four-and-a-half centuries under one lineage unbroken from the first ruler, Osman, who gave his name to the empire.

While the Ottoman dynasty was established in 1299 by Osman Bey in Sogut, a region east of modern-day Bursa, the Ottoman Empire can only really be said to have taken off a century and a half later at the fall of Constantinople. Consolidating power for the duration of the 14th century, the Ottoman's established a number of capital cities and fought off Mongolian invasions.

The birth of the Ottoman Empire itself, can be traced to 1453 when muslim leader Mehmed II Khan Gazi captured Constantinople from the ruling Byzantine christians. Constantinople, as it was known, had previously been the seat of the Byzantine Empire, famous throughout the globe for its trade in minerals, silk and other materials. By straddling the Bosphorus, the city linked Europe to Asia and presided over the trade route to the East.

Despite this advantageous position, Constantinople had begun to experience widescale degradation and was rife for the picking and an injection of new enthusiasm. The transfer of power also marked the begining of the end of the Byzantine Empire; once the Byzantine christians had lost their capital, the platform for their imperialist expansion was no longer stable and exposed the empire to attack.

For the Ottomans, however, their reign was just beginning. Renaming the city Istanbul, the Ottomans began to expand both north towards Hungary and east towards the Middle East.

The inspiration leadership of Mehmed II did much for the Ottoman cause as it expanded its presence.

Only 21 years old when he wrested control of Constantinople, Mehmed II, was reknowned as a warrior (the term 'Gazi' is still used as a term of respect in modern Turkey, denoting a warrior) with an unpredictable and often viscious temperament.

Reservations as to his notorious temper aside, Mehmed II revitalised Istanbul and dedicated considerable wealth to revamping a number of key centres throughout modern-day Turkey.

One can still find physical evidence of the Ottoman presence in cities such as Bursa, for a brief few years the capital of the Ottoman empire.

Istanbul, under his leadership, became a centre of intellectualism, attracting muslim scholars and creative talent from throughout the Arab and Asian world. The architecture of the city has been much trumpeted with the Blue Mosque, built during the reign of the Ottomans, still attracting scores of architectural scholars and tourists to this day.

Not that the Ottomans were content with limiting their influence to this region alone. The fourth Ottoman ruler, Sultan Suleyman, was the most influential imperialist ruler that the empire knew, extending the empire north into Hungary up to Austria, west into Morocco and Spain and into Damascus and Cyprus in the east.

Once the reign of the Sultan ended in 1566, however, the empire began to exhibit cracks in its previously invincible structure.

The empire began to suffer attacks from countries eager to reassert control of their land, and internal divisions as to the influence of muslim law.

Anti-Ottoman rebels fought against the rulers but were largely ineffectual.

When Catherine the Great of Russia regained control of the Black Sea region, the platform had been laid for the demise of the Ottoman empire. The Greeks, with the aid of the Russians and the English, began to make significant territorial gains, forcing the Ottoman's to recognise Greek independence.

The final death of the Ottoman empire can be said to have taken place in the 1920's when the modern Republic of Turkey was formed. Having originally entered the first World War as an ally of Germany, the Turks eventually surrendered to the allied powers, but in the subsequent negotiations were stripped of much land. It took a significant effort by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, considered the father of modern Turkey, to reassert control of Turkish land.

The Ottoman empire was finally abolished in 1920 in the Treaty of Sevres.

The Treaty of Lausanne finally established the sovereignty of modern Turkey, establishing the modern Republic with Ataturk at the helm and spelling an end to a 600-year dynasty.

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The truth about absinthe drink

The article presents history and insights into absinthe, a liquor rich in culture and danger, to which Europe is currently re-opening its doors.

There is a growing interest on the Internet about absinthe, an interest akin to the flair for Starwars, the Mars footages or even Napster downloads. Absinthe is simply an extraordinarily strong liquor very popular in Europe (especially Paris) in the 1800s which was subsequently banned towards the early 1900s due to its harmful content. So why the hype?

The growing Internet craze for the intoxicating drink derives mostly from the liquor's rich history, which drives on-line pundits to create not only a cult around the drink, but to even concoct home-made recipes of absinthe with often dangerous consequences.

One writer writes: "All you would-be home absinthe-makers should be aware that the New England Journal of Medicine reported that some extremely ill-advised individual ended up in the hospital and nearly died because he drank essential oil of wormwood, a pure form of the toxic ingredient in absinthe..."

Adding to the growing frenzy for absinthe is the fact that Britain re-opened its doors to the import and consumption of the drink in 1998, when most of Europe has banned it for close to a century. Even Canada had a change of heart on absinthe recently, although the composition or ingredients of the drink has been grossly modified as to make it totally alien to its connoisseur's palate.

The craze for the drink becomes even more understandable when one realizes that many of its avid drinkers in history were famous artists-- Edouard Manet, Oscar Wilde, Edgar Degas, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Vincent Van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Pablo Picasso, Ernest Hemingway (and that’s naming just a few). So much so that people who come to know about the drink eventually associate it with increasing one's creative prowess, or even eccentricity. In fact, there has been this insidious rumor rancouring across the past two centuries, that consuming huge quantities of absinthe leads to sightings of green little fairies which to creative pundits, can take the place of an all-inspiring muse.

Just some classical artworks inspired by absinthe: Edouard Manet's 1859 The Absinthe Drinker; Edgar Degas' 1876 L'Absinthe; Vincent Van Gogh's 1887 Still Life with Absinthe; Pablo Picasso’s 1901 The Absinthe Drinker and 1914 Absinthe Glass.

Barring the legend surrounding the drink, what is absinthe, really? Vicki Richman, in writing about the drink in relation to New Orleans history notes: "Absinthe is an anise-flavored liqueur distilled with obil of wormwood, a leafy herb, and also containing flavorful herbs like hyssop, veronica, fennel, lemon balm and angelica. Wormwood is Artemisia absinthum, an herb that grows wild in Europe and has been cultivated in the United States as well. Much of its legendary effect is due to its extremely high alcohol content, ranging from 50% to 75% (usually around 60%). The active ingredient in wormwood, responsible for the additional effects, is thujone, which is chemically a neurotoxin."

You don't just sit down and drink absinthe, bottoms up. You serve it with a cube of sugar placed on an "absinthe spoon," and the liquor was drizzled over the sugar into the glass of water. The sugar helped take the bitter bite off the absinthe, which also turned the liquor milky white.

Matthew Baggott, author of the Absinthe FAQ on the Internet quotes a passage in Lanier (1995) which succintly captures the culture behind the drink:

"[In Paris] the noon hour is a little fête, when people try to forget that they are working for their living. Master and man go off their different ways... All thoughts of business are put aside for a good hour and a half, or two hours even ... from 11 to 1 or noon. They do not go immediately to eating. They sit outside upon the sidewalk, even in the winter time, look at passers-by and sip their drink. The drink is absinthe. They drink it very slowly; by slow degrees they feel their poor, tired backbones strengthen and their brains grow clearer, and they feel a touch of happiness. It is so pleasant to sit looking at the street and all the pretty ladies passing by. At great cafes, upon frequented boulevards the price is only 10 cents. In the quarters of the working men, you may have absinthe for three cents."

The drink came to be known as "La Fée Verte" or The Green Fairy, by virtue of its often dazzling green color (depending on the brand). The color ideally comes from the chlorophyll content of the herbs. For quick profit, some manufacturers in the latter half of the 1800s would, however, adulterate the composition by adding toxic chemicals to produce both the green color and the louche (or clouding).

Therein lies the chief reason why the drink was eventually banned in most of Europe by the early 1900s. While it was debateable that the wormwood content in original absinthe was the culprit for the mental cases, convulsions, epilepsy, comatoses and even suicidal deaths among the creative circles in Europe at that time (Van Gogh is an example), governments nonetheless banned the The Green Fairy as a precautionary measure.

Baggot in his FAQ on the Net sheds contemporary light on thujone, the main content which differentiates absinthe from other drinks, a chemical which comes from the herbs wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) and Roman wormwood (Artemisia pontica). Herein are some of Baggots' findings: "There is good evidence that both thujone and wormwood have psychoactive properties. Some have suggested that this effect is due to thujone binding at the cannabinoid receptor, at which the active components in marijuana act... This seems unlikely. Furthermore, it is not even clear that thujone is present in sufficient quantities to play a role in absinthe intoxication. However, it is possible that thujone accumulates in the body and plays a role in the psychoactivity and toxicity of chronic absinthe use."

Vicki Richman reports that absinthe is still available in Spain, Portugal, the Czech Republic and Britain, "where it is now quite the trendy thing amongst patrons of bars and coffeehouses."

During her Spring 1996 trip to Eastern Europe, Richman, as told to Chuck Taggart, recalls sampling " The Green fairy for the first time in the form of locally-made Hill's 'Absinth' at the Globe Coffeehouse and Bookstore in Prague. I was admittedly curious, and in the interests of taking a dip into New Orleans history, I ordered some. It was emerald-green, and was served neat -- not in the old traditional manner, with an absinthe spoon and sugar cube. I don't think tradition would have helped. It was ... rather vile, actually. It had a powerful kick, due to its high alcohol content, and my travelling companion opined that it smelled to him rather like turpentine. Unfortunately, its flavor resembled turpentine as well..."

Naturally after absinthe's banning in the late 1800s, imitations, using anise and other legal herbs in place of wormwood, appeared. Reports Richman: "The most well-known is Pernod, which is similar to absinthe but without the wormwood. But the similarity is only in color and taste; Pernod is without the mind-numbing characteristics of thujone-containing absinthe. In New Orleans, the preferred absinthe substitute is Herbsaint, a locally-made anise liquor which is used in cocktails as well as in cooking. It's an absolutely lovely-tasting pastis drink, at 90 proof, and has a flavor that I believe to be superior to Pernod."

It's interesting to know how absinthe is made. Simon and Schuster's Guide to Herbs and Spices reveals Henri-Louis Pernod’s recipe. He used aniseed, fennel, hyssop, and lemonbalm along with lesser amounts of angelica, star anise, dittany, juniper, nutmeg, and veronica. He mascerated these ingredients together with wormwood plants. He then left the mixture to sit, adding water then distilling the mixture. Dried herbs, and more wormwood were added to the distillate, which was then diluted with alcohol to give a concentration of about 75% alcohol by volume. Other absinthe manufacturers, though, used slightly different ingredients such as nutmeg and calamus.

An 1855 recipe found in Pontarlier, France (Scientific American) gives the following instructions for making absinthe: “Macerate 2.5 kilograms of dried wormwood, 5 kilograms of anise and 5 kilograms of fennel in 95 liters of 85 percent ethanol by volume. Let the mixture steep for at least 12 hours in the pot of a double boiler. Add 45 liters of water and apply heat; collect 95 liters of distillate. To 40 liters of the distillate, add 1 kilogram of Roman wormwood, 1 kilogram of hyssop and 500 grams of lemon balm, all of which have been dried and finely divided. Extract at a moderate temperature, then siphon off the liquor, filter, and reunite it with the remaining 55 liters of distillate. Dilute with water to produce approximately 100 liters of absinthe with a final alcohol concentration of 74 percent by volume.”

If the late 1800s was a scenario of scary pathologies in the creative circles of Europe, what's currently happening on the Internet is even scarier. Richman warns: “Although I believe that a glass or two here and there is fine if you can get it, the problem with all this nascent absinthe interest is not in drinking the real stuff that's made by reputable distillers, but in drinking the stuff people make in their bathtubs, or by steeping dried wormwood in vodka or Pernod (which surely must taste absolutely horrible; it needs to be distilled, people) or by quaffing pure wormwood oil.”

Similarly, Baggot rings the alarm bell: “I do not recommend or condone absinthe use. Absinthe users of the past sometimes suffered serious toxic effects. Wormwood extract, an ingredient in absinthe, can cause life-threatening problems, including convulsions, kidney failure, and rhabdomyolysis. In other words, it can kill you.”

So the word is out. Absinthe doesn’t really make the heart grow fonder. It can not only cause absinthism (i.e., the symptoms of excessive absinthe intake) or abseenteism (i.e., not coming to work). It can also cause you to be as dead as Van Gogh, if taken regularly or in huge quantities from dubious suppliers intent on making a fast buck faster than any green fairy.

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Religion: worshipping at a Shinto shrine

A description of how to worship at a Shinto shrine, as well as a description of the religion of Shinto in general.

When it comes to the old religions from the Orient, very few have the mystery and mysticism associated with them that Japanese religion of Shinto does. A religion without a founder, written scriptures, or body of law, Shinto has been described in the past as a mix of nature worship, shamanism, fertility rites, divination, and hero worship.

Shinto dates back to around the 8th century BC, while the Yamato dynasty still ruled over Japan. The name "Shinto" is derived from the Chinese words "shin tao", which means "The Way of the Gods", and reflects a lot of the views that Shinto holds about the world in general. Practitioners of Shinto believe that the world is inhabited by spirits known as "kami", who can either be the guardians of a clan or area or are simply the spirit of an object or creature.

One of the most obvious forms of Shinto worship are the Shinto shrines, which have become synonymous with Oriental mysticism. The shrines can be simple or ornate, and are built out of tribute to the kami that takes residence within them. To worship at a shrine is to pay respect to the kami within, and to pray that they will grant your sincere request.

To worship at a Shinto shrine, you would first walk through a special gateway known as a "Tori", which is considered to be the gateway of the gods. Likely, you would do this either barefoot or wearing sandals... you may also have bathed in a river near the shrine beforehand (or at least washed your hands and face in the water.)

Once in the shrine, you should stand up straight and toss a coin into the offering box to pay tribute. Some people will skip breakfast or another meal once a month and use the money that they would have spent on that meal as an offering, but that isn't required. After you've made your offering, call upon the kami of the shrine by clapping your hands together two or three times at chest level. (Make sure that you align your palms and fingers, and clap flat-handed... don't clap like you're giving applause.)

After calling upon the kami, keep your hands together with your fingers pointing up and bow slightly. To bow correctly, you should bend at the waist and have your eyes closed; keep your legs straight and the upper part of your body rigid. This shows restraint on your part, and also pays respect to the kami of the shrine. While you bow, you may make a wish to the kami in hopes that they will fulfill it; wishes are usually along the lines of having a happy marriage, or the healing of an illness, or for aid to come to another. Wishes must be made with faith, and should support the affirmations of the Shinto religion (the affirmations being family tradition, love of nature, cleanliness, and the worship of kami and ancestors.)

Should you wish to pay further homage to the kami, a good way to do it is with an origami flower or animal (such as a swan.) Origami is considered to be "paper of the spirits", and is often left at Shinto shrines. Out of respect for the spirit of the tree that gave its life to create the paper, true oragami should always be folded into its shape without any extra cuts to assist it.

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Culinary cultures all about thai cuisine basics

For the new cook and the practiced chef, an introduction to Thai food preparation. Includes ingredients, dishes, and tips for cooking.

Thai food is an increasingly popular fare served in storefront cafes and elegant restaurants throughout the country. Its aromatic and often spicy flavors are delicious testament to Thailand’s unique culture and environment. Thai food is not always hot, although many of its most famous dishes, including red and green curries, are very spicy and not for the timid.

The hot and humid Thai environment influenced its cuisine in a number of ways. Historically, food preservation was a problem in many tropical countries. Early gourmets soon learned that salt preserves, and citrus and chili peppers were strong anti-bacterials. Chilies especially were very important in making sure that the beef, chicken, or prawns in a curry or a rice or noodle dish didn't give people food poisoning. Modern beverages such as Thai iced tea developed in part because condensed milk would not spoil. While such concerns are minimized by today's more sanitary food preparation, the necessity of ancient food curing resulted in meals that also taste fantastic.

When dining out, you will see the unmistakable influence of Thailand’s neighbors in many dishes, especially China and India. Also, the interaction of different religions is made manifest in dishes such as Massaman, a yellow vegetarian curry adapted by the Muslim population of what once was known as Siam. Whether it is hot or mild, sour or sweet, however, authentic Thai food and drink is always a treat for the senses.

There are a few basics that need to be understood to enhance your enjoyment of this great cuisine. The first is the philosophy of Thai cooking. There is a reason why this food tastes the way it does beyond the availability of certain meats, foods, and spices. The cornerstone of Thai cooking is the relationship of five fundamental tastes derived from ancient Chinese cooking: bitter, sweet, sour, salty, and spicy. The relationship between these sensory building blocks can be seen, for example, in red curry (Gaeng Ped Neua) that is made with red chili paste (spicy), coconut milk (sweet), fish sauce (salty) and lemongrass or lime leaves (sour) among its ingredients. Thai sweet pork (Moo Wan) utilizes a palm sugar sauce (sweet) punctuated with fish sauce (salty) that results in a dish tasting very much like ham. Understanding these building blocks will enhance your enjoyment of Thai food and your navigation of the menu at your favorite Thai restaurant.

Classic Thai presentation is a multi-dish affair involving appetizers, soups, a rice or noodle dish, curry, and ultimately a sweet dessert. These are not courses in the traditional western sense and are often served all at once. The servings are meant to be shared. As is the case with many cuisines, it is difficult to order a complete meal at a restaurant because many of these dishes are now designed to be meals unto themselves. Usually, fixed price menus provide a way to sample the full treatment of a classical Thai meal and the interaction between the various dishes and the five cornerstones. If you can find a restaurant that offers this, it is well worth the visit.

Regardless of the menu, however, if your appetite allows it is a good idea to at least sample the range of flavors that Thai cooking presents. Spring rolls dipped in fish sauce, or a satay with its distinctive peanut flavor is a good start before ordering a red or green curry or a rice or noodle dish with spicy meats. Since all Thai food is derived from the five basic building blocks, thoughts of compatibility are not necessary. In other words, there is a culinary bridge that links a beef satay with a green curry with prawns, for example. While you might not consider ordering a beef carpaccio as an appetizer if you have a hankering for linguini with clams, the sweetness of the beef satay peanut sauce and the coconut in the green seafood curry are from the same building block. Order away!

When choosing a beverage, remember that Thai food does not easily lend itself to wines. On the other hand, traditional Thai beverages retain the same building blocks as do its food and offer a satisfying complement to your lunch or dinner. Thai iced tea is a remarkable drink, even in its most simple form. The combination of strong black tea sweetened by condensed milk is consistent with the philosophy of Thai food (sweet and bitter) and is compatible with a wide range of dishes. Other drinks that utilize sweet fruits are equally compatible if you have a taste for daiquiris made from exotic fruits such as guava or lilikoi (passion fruit). If you enjoy the hot stuff, whether in curry or a spicy chili-laden rice or noodle dish, an ice-cold Thai beer is always recommended.

Dessert at Thai restaurants can either be simple or elaborate. Coconut ice cream and various tropical fruit infused sorbets or sherbets can be found on most menus. Fried bananas are also commonplace. A restaurant with a more authentic and extensive menu will offer additional fare such as Sungkaya a steamed coconut custard or various dishes using lychee fruit.

As is the case with many foods from the Orient, there are unique herbs and spices that are central to Thai cooking. Finding them is not always easy, although the upsurge of interest in Thai cooking has made many of these products readily available. If you are prepared to do some easy substitutions, you can still capture the essence of wonderful Thai cooking at home. Remember the building blocks and be creative and soon you’ll be fixing wonderful Thai dishes in the comfort of your own kitchen.

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